The financial crisis and the banking technology shows that the "trading" is specific. This is why the Basel Committee estimates that it appropriate to regulate banks trading activity in a specific way. But it is difficult to characterize the activity of "trading" and actual banking activity itself.
Trading is limited to negotiation; it justifies less equity as security, since it does not present credit risk. But this characterization even is questionable. This is why a consultation opened on May, 3 by the Basel Committee, and the qualification, and the classification of operations, and the measures of prevention of risks to be taken by specific prudential measures. Responses can be made until September 7, 2012.
On July 23, 2010 was published the awaited European-wide stress test, a mechanism designed by regulators to restore trust in markets through the mean of transparency. This paper examines the effect of trust on market from an economic perspective as well as from a sociological one. The paper demonstrated how trust, because it aims at achieving transparency which is Regulation’s number one tool, is not only necessary to economic growth but also participates to fulfilling regulatory objectives, such as market stability, risk prevention and consumer protection. Indeed, because Regulation is a mechanism aiming at preventing market failures, it needs as many tools, such as sociological ones (e.g. incentives) it may use to achieve such aim. The paper suggests that transparency is a tool for Regulation since it acts as a communicating vessel between regulatory objectives (microprudential) and supervisory ones (macroprudential), which both contribute to Regulation’s broader objective: the stability of a system.
FRENCH
Article: la régulation par la confiance: l'exemple des stress tests
Le 23 juillet 2010 a été publié le très attendu stress test à l'échelle européenne, un mécanisme conçu par les régulateurs pour restaurer la confiance dans les marchés par la transparence. Cet article examine les effets de la confiance sur les marchés dans une perspective économique et sociologique. L'article démontre en quoi la confiance, parce qu'elle a pour but d'installer la transparence, premier objectif de la Régulation, n'est pas seulement nécessaire à la croissance économique, mais participe également à l'accomplissement d'objectifs régulatoires, comme la stabilité du marché, la prévention du risque et la protection du consommateur. En effet, parce que la Régulation est un mécanisme visant à empêcher les défaillances de marché, elle a besoin d'autant d'instruments, y compris sociologiques (p.ex. les incitations), dont elle peut avoir usage pour atteindre cet objectif. L'article suggère que la transparence est un outil pour la Regulation puisqu'elle joue le rôle de transmetteur entre des objectifs régulatoires (micro-prudentiels) et des objectifs de supervision (macro-prudentiels), qui tous deux contriibuent à l'objectif plus large de la Régulation: la stabilité d'un système.
GERMAN
Artikel: Durch Vertrauern regulieren: das Beispiel den Stress Tests
Am 23. Juli 2010 wurden die erwarteten Ergebnisse den europaweiten Stress Tests bekanntgegeben. Diese Tests wurden von den Regulierungsbehörden dazu erfasst, um das Vertrauern auf Märkten durch Transparenz wiederherzustellen. Dieser Artikel erforscht die Auswirkung von Vertrauern auf Märkten auf einer ökonomischen und soziologischen Perspektive. Er zeigt, inwieweit Vertrauern, das den ersten Ziel der Regulierung, die Transparenz, einsetzen soll, nicht nur notwendig für die Wachstum ist, sondern auch für die Durchsetzung von Regulierungsziele, wie Marktstabilität, Riskverhütung, und Verbraucherschutz. Zwar ist Regulierung ein Mechanismus, das darauf zielt, Marktversagen zu vermeiden, sie braucht so viele Instrumente, einschliesslich soziologische Instrumente (z.B. Anreize), die sie brauchen könnte. Der Artikel deutet an, dass Transparenz ein Instrument der Regulierunh ist, da sie die Übertragung von Regulierungsziele (mikroprudentiel) und Überwachungsziele (makroprudentiel) erlaubt, was zum breiten Ziel der Regulierung beiträgt, und zwar die Systemstabiliserung.
SPANISH
La regulación a base de confianza: el ejemplo del estudio del estrés
El 23 de julio del 2010 fue publicado el muy esperado estudio del estrés, que se llevó a cabo a través de toda Europa, lo cual es un mecanismo diseñado por reguladores para restaurar la confianza en los mercados utilizando el valor medio de la transparencia. Este informe examina el efecto de la confianza sobre el marcado desde una perspectiva económica al igual que desde una perspectiva sociológica. El informe demuestra que la confianza, precisamente porque su objetivo es la transparencia que es el instrumento primordial de la Regulación, no sólo es necesaria para el crecimiento económico, sino que también contribuye a la realización de los objetivos regulatorios, como la estabilidad del mercado, la prevención del riesgo y la protección al consumidor. Por lo tanto, ya que la Regulación es un mecanismo cuyo objetivo es prevenir los fallos del mercado, necesita de la mayor cantidad de instrumentos posibles, como instrumentos sociológicos (por ejemplo, los incentivos), para cumplir con su meta. El informe sugiere que la transparencia es un instrumento para la Regulación ya que actúa como una nave comunicativa entre los objetivos regulatorios (microprudencial) y los objetivos de supervisión (macroprudencial), que juntos contribuyen al objetivo más amplio de la Regulación: la estabilidad del sistema.
ITALIAN
Articolo: Regolazione attraverso la fiducia: l’esempio degli stress test
Il 23 luglio 2010 é stato pubblicato il tanto atteso stress test a livello europeo, un meccanismo ideato dai regolatori al fine di rassicurare i mercati attraversola trasparenza. Tale studio esamina gli effetti della fiducia sul mercato da un punto di vista economico e sociologico. Lo studio dimostra come la fiducia, puntando a raggiungere una maggiore trasparenza, meccanismo primario della regolazione finanziaria, non é solamente necessaria per la crescita economica ma contribuisce inoltre a raggiungere gli obiettivi dei regolatori come la stabilità del mercato, la prevenzione del rischio e la protezione dei consumatori. Inoltre, poiché la regolazione é un meccanismo che vuole evitare i mancati funzionamenti del mercato, sono necessari per raggiungere tale scopo diversi strumenti, tra cui quelli sociologici (ad esempio gli incentivi). Questo studio suggerisce che la trasparenza é uno strumento di regolazione dal momento in cui costituisce il vaso comunicante tra gli obiettivi della regolazione (micropudenziale) e quelli della supervisione (macroprudenziale). Entrambi questi obiettivi contribuiscono al più ampio obiettivo della regolazione: la stabilità di un sistema.
The repression is inseparable from how to repress. This is why the procedural difficulties are indicative of underlying fundamental problems. Currently, the basic issue updated by the battles around the procedures of financial sanctions is about the sanction bais.
For the regulator, the penalty is one tool among others to regulate financial markets. The penalty in a continuum with its legislative powers, are its teeth and claws through which financial markets are developing. The purpose of financial policy justifies an objective repression with a probationary system often based on presumptions leading to impute breaches players in some positions on or financial markets. The regulator must have this card in hand and use it according to this method.
Moreover, if it happens that people commit reprehensible misconducts, perceived as such by the social group, they should be punished, possibly up to the prison. Only the criminal justice is legitimate to do so legitimately weighed down by the burden of proving intentionality, etc.
We must distinguish these two types of criminality. It is from there that the two procedures and two probationary systems can take place at the same time but on different offenses.
For now this is not the case, as "financial misconduct" are only the carbon copy of "financial crimes" lightened loads of evidence that protected the defendant and who should answer for now twice.
Procedural problem? No, problem of criminalization, which won't be released by procedural solutions, the most hazardous being to create a new institution, the most calamitous being to weaken the system by removing one of the ways of prosecution. It is necessary to make distinctions in the offenses that are currently redundant.
Thus, repression as a regulatory tool used by the Regulator is in focus, but the real financial criminal law remains to be consolidated to achieve its own and classic goal: punish faults including through the prison.
The regulator of telecommunications of the Venezuala also controls the television channels. In October 2011, it heavily punished by a fine Globovision channel for how it had reported mutiny. The company has not paid the fine. Seized by the regulator, the Supreme Court of justice ordered the freeze of assets of the company for $ 5.6 million as long as execution would not be made. The following day, June 29, 2012, the fine was paid. It is not sure that democracy has its account.
Although the industry has faced some difficulties over the past two years, hedge funds play an important role in the global financial system. The benefits these investment vehicles bring to the markets are essentially made possible by flexible and light regulatory regimes. Hedge funds didn’t cause the current crisis, yet there seems to be a consensus among regulators around the world for more regulation: to prevent systemic risk and guarantee investor protection. This paper examines in its first part the relevance of these two arguments. It concludes that although systemic risk may be a legitimate concern, the investor protection argument is questionable. Part II explores what the future of hedge fund regulation could look like. Part III develops the idea that hedge funds do not need more but better regulation (e.g. with costs/benefits analysis, legal framework on a global scale or the creation of a global database for regulators’ use).
FRENCH
Article: Le futur de la régulation des Hedge Funds: une approche comparative: États-Unis, Royaume-Uni, France, Italie et Allemagne
Bien que l'industrie a du faire face à quelques difficultés au court des deux dernières années, les hedge funds jouent un rôle important dans le système financier global. Les bénéfices de ces véhicules d'investissement apportent au marchés sont essentiellement rendus possibles par des régimes régulatoires légers et flexible. Les hedge funds n'ont pas causé la crise actuelle, pourtant, un consensus semble émerger chez les régulateurs du monde pour réguler plus cette activité, cela afin d'éviter le risque systémique et pour garantir la protection des investisseurs. Cet article examine dans un premier temps la pertinence de ces arguments, concluant que la prévention du risque systémique peut être une préoccupation légitime, mais que l'argument de la protection des investisseurs est plus douteux. La deuxième partie de l'article étudie ce à quoi le futur de la régulation des hedge funds pourrait ressembler. La troisième partie développe l'idée selon laquelle les hedge funds n'ont pas besoin de plus mais de meilleure régulation (par exemple avec l'analyse coûts/bénéfices, la mise en oeuvre d'un cadre légal à une échelle globale ou la création d'une base de données globale à destination des régulateurs)
GERMAN
Artikel: die Zukunft der Hedge Funds Regulierung: eine komparative Analyse (Vereinigten Staaten, Grossbritanien, Italien, Frankreich, Deutschland)
Obwohl die Hedge Funds Branche in einer schwierigen Lage in den zwei vorherigen Jahren war, spielen diese Hedge Funds eine wichtige Rolle im globalen finanziellen System. Die Vorteile, die solche Funds mit ihnen ziehen, können erst enstehen dank leichtere Regulierungsbedigungen. Selbst wenn Hedge Funds die Krise nicht verursacht haben, sind die Behörde darauf geeinigt, strengere Regeln durchzusetzen, um dem Verbraucher zu schützen und die Entstehung von Systemrisiken zu vermeiden. Dieser Artikel erforscht im ersten Teil die Gültigkeit solche Argumenten, und zeigt wie die Wirksmakeit der Verbraucherschutz des durch Hedge Funds Regulierung zweifelhaft ist. Dann wird beschrieben, was die Zukunft der Regulierung sein werden könnte. Und endlich wird analysiert, wie die Hedge Funds Branche eher bessere als weitere Regulierung braucht (insb. bessere Aufwand-Nutzen-Analyse, globalen Richtlinien und die Gründung einer globalen Datenbank für die Regulierungsbehörden).
SPANISH
El futuro de la regulación de los fondos de cobertura: Un enfoque comparativo, los Estados Unidos, Gran Bretaña, Francia, Italia y Alemania.
Aunque la industria se ha encontrado con algunas dificultades a lo largo de los últimos dos años, los fondos de cobertura juegan un rol importante en el sistema financiero global. Los beneficios que estos vehículos de inversión fomentan en los mercados son esencialmente posible gracias en gran parte a los regímenes flexibles de la regulación. Los fondos de cobertura no causaron la crisis económica, pero parece existir un consenso general entre economistas abogando por más regulación: para prevenir el riesgo sistemático y garantizar la protección del inversor. Este informe examina en su primera parte dos argumentos. El documento concluye que, aunque la preocupación por el riesgo sistemático puede ser una inquietud legítima, la protección del inversor es cuestionable. La Parte II explora el futuro de la regulación de los fondos de cobertura. La tercera Parte desarrolla la idea que los fondos de cobertura no necesitan de más regulación, sino de mejor regulación (por ejemplo, con el análisis de la relación costo/beneficio, marco legal en escala global o la creación de una base de datos para los reguladores).
ITALIAN
Articolo: Il futuro della regolazione dei fondi hedge (fondi speculativi): una visione comparativa, Stati Uniti, Gran Bretagna, Francia, Italia e Germania
Sebbene l’industria abbia affrontato alcune difficoltà negli ultimi due anni, i fondi hedge giocano un ruolo importante nel sistema finanziario globale. I benefici che tali strumenti di investimento hanno sui mercati sono resi possibili essenzialmente grazie alla flessibilità ed alla semplicità dei regimi di regolamentazione. I fondi hedge non hanno causato la crisi attuale, tuttavia sembra che vi sia un consenso generale tra i regolatori finanziari nel mondo, per un sistema di regole finanziarie più incisivo al fine di prevenire il rischio sistemico e garantire la protezione degli investitori. Tale intervento esamina nella sua prima parte la rilevanza dei questi due obiettivi. Conclude che sebbene il rischio sistemico possa essere una preoccupazione legittima, la protezione degli investitori é discutibile. La seconda parte esamina il possibile futuro della regolazione in materia di fondi hedge. La terza parte sviluppa l’idea che i fondi hedge non necessitino di regolamentazione maggiore, ma di una migliore (ad es. analisi costi/benefici, un quadro normativo su scala globale oppure la creazione di un database globale ad uso degli operatori finanziari).
The translated summaries are done by the Editors and not by the Authors.
ENGLISH
The Autorità per le garanzie nelle comunicazioni (or “AgCom” – the Italian Regulatory Authority for electronic communications) issued a decision on January 11, 2012, setting regulatory remedies applicable to the Italian incumbent’s fixed next generation networks (NGN).
Italian next generation networks’ regulation complies with pro-competitive and pro-investment objectives provided for by EU sectoral law.
FRENCH
La Autorità per le garanzie nelle comunicazioni (ou “AgCom” - Autorité italienne de régulation pour les communications électroniques) a adoté une décision le 11 janvier 2012, imposant des engagements applicables à l’entreprise italienne de télécommunication, opérateur historique, en vue d’organiser la prochaine génération des réseaux.
Cette régulation italienne de la prochaine génération des réseaux de télécommunications est conforme aux objectifs retenus par les textes sectoriels de l’Union Européenne, dont les objectifs sont de favoriser la concurrence et l’investissement en la matière.
As soon as Regulation assumes independence of the operator who manages the essential infrastructure, ex ante conditions of such independence must be met.
Europe doesn't require legal autonomy of the essential infrastructure manager, probably because such autonomy, it would be both too ask the Policy, which may want more integrated organizations as soon as public transportation is a mix of public policies and that to public funds are used. But it would also be too little to ask the Policy because no matter the legal autonomy, the key is the real independence of the manager, that is under the control of the Regulator.
The Loi portant réforme ferroviaire (Railway Reform Act) of August 4, 2014 has made the integration of the company that manages the rail network, which the new name is SNCF Réseau (SNCF Network) in a public group, which also includes the SNCF, public transportation operator, in competition with new entrants in a newly opened sector to competition.
The Competition Authority in its opinion of 4 October 2013 had expressed reluctance towards the bill, to the influence that such corporate organization offers to the public operator, to the detriment of its competitors and the opening of the railway sector to competition.
The Competition Authority issues its opinion as a real essay on what should be the Regulation of the railway sector through the "governance" of the network manager. Indeed, the first part of the opinion relates to "the independent management of railway infrastructure" while the second focuses on the integration of railway network in the public group built par the law. The third part of this Opinion draws conclusions to measure whether we can consider that the Autorité de Régulation des Activités Ferroviaires (French Regulatory Authority of Railways Activities) shall have the capacity to ensure this independence by governance or not.
This review, in its construction itself, demonstrates the dialectic between Regulation and Governance (I), which is an observation and stresses the role of the regulator in the effectiveness of governance (II), which is more a question .
The European Medicine Agency decided to open its archives on the totalities of clinical trials conducted by pharmaceutical companies, work that led to the authorization of drugs market.
In this, the Authority operates a fundamental change in regulation, replacing the principle of information by the principle of transparency, to the detriment of business confidentiality.
On November 4, 2010, the French telecommunications regulator obliged a fiber optic network operator to obey certain conditions for the access to civil engineering infrastructures that it had not accepted in its contracts with the civil engineering infrastructure operator. The Court of Appeals of Paris confirmed this ruling on June 23, 2011 on the grounds that the civil engineering operator required all fiber optic network operators to behave identically.
FRENCH
Par une décision du 4 novembre 2010, le régulateur français des télécommunications avait obligé un opérateur de réseau fibre, pourtant titulaire de contrats, à observer des contraintes contenues dans l’offre “accès au génie” qu’il n’avait pas acceptées. La décision est approuvée par la Cour d’appel de Paris le 23 juin 2011, car l’opérateur du génie civil a besoin de comportements homogènes de la part de tous les opérateurs de fibres optiques.
SPANISH
El principio de los estándares de la neutralidad (el ejemplo de estándares de contabilidad)
El tema de la neutralidad trae a luz un cierto número de ideas preliminares.
Para comenzar, la figura de Buda viene a mente, porque él sólo expresa la naturaleza interminable que es el tema de la neutralidad, ya que al pensar en el hecho de que él no piensa en absolutamente nada, Buda aún así piensa en algo. También me hace pensar el intento constante de la música contemporánea de alcanzar una forma de neutralidad: pero este objetivo permanece inalcanzable, porque es evidente que la búsqueda de lo neutral, en un sonido o un timbre, probablemente nunca se podrá encontrar.
This collective work describes the contours of French, European, and International healthcare regulation, and explores past, present, and future evolutions and tendencies in this sector. Original French title: Annales de la régulation, 2009, volume 2, sous la direction de Thierry Revet et Laurent Vidal, collection Bibliothèque de l'Institut de Recherche Juridique de la Sorbonne (IRJS) – André Tunc. (LGDJ)
